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Studies suggest that a cut-off value of 15 ng/ml for plasma or saliva cotinine provides the best distinction among current smokers, non-smokers, and passive smokers, while 20 ng/ml represents the upper limit typically associated with passive smoking

From the data, researchers found that there is an indication of a potential lack of studies that favour a positive association of the disease with smoking indicating a potential publication bias

unclean syringes leading to increased infection risk) are also not considered by the model, because adequate dose-response data could not be identified for these endpoints

A., Kamholz, B